Cues and regulatory pathways involved in natural competence and transformation in pathogenic and environmental Gram-negative bacteria

Bacterial genomics is flourishing, as whole-genome sequencing has become affordable, readily available and rapid. As a result, it has become clear how frequently horizontal gene transfer (HGT) occurs in bacteria. The potential implications are highly significant because HGT contributes to several processes, including the spread of antibiotic-resistance cassettes, the distribution of toxin-encoding phages and the transfer of pathogenicity islands. Three modes of HGT are recognized in bacteria: conjugation, transduction and natural transformation. In contrast to the first two mechanisms, natural competence for transformation does not rely on mobile genetic elements but is driven solely by a developmental programme in the acceptor bacterium. Once the bacterium becomes competent, it is able to take up DNA from the environment and to incorporate the newly acquired DNA into its own chromosome. The initiation and duration of competence differ significantly among bacteria. In this review, we outline the latest data on representative naturally transformable Gram-negative bacteria and how their competence windows differ. We also summarize how environmental cues contribute to the initiation of competence in a subset of naturally transformable Gram-negative bacteria and how the complexity of the niche might dictate the fine-tuning of the competence windo

A transcriptional regulator linking quorum sensing and chitin induction to render Vibrio cholerae naturally transformable

The human pathogen Vibrio cholerae is an aquatic bacterium associated with zooplankton and their chitinous exoskeletons. On chitinous surfaces, V. cholerae initiates a developmental programme, known as natural competence, to mediate transformation, which is a mode of horizontal gene transfer. Competence facilitates the uptake of free DNA and recombination into the bacterial genome. Recent studies have indicated that chitin surfaces are required, but not sufficient to induce competence. Two additional regulatory pathways, i.e. catabolite repression and quorum sensing (QS), are components of the regulatory network that controls natural competence in V. cholerae. In this study, we investigated the link between chitin induction and QS. We show that the major regulators of these two pathways, TfoX and HapR, are both involved in the activation of a gene encoding a transcriptional regulator of the LuxR-type family, which we named QS and TfoX-dependent regulator (QstR). We demonstrate that HapR binds the promoter of qstR in a site-specific manner, indicating a role for HapR as an activator of qstR. In addition, epistasis experiments indicate that QstR compensates for the absence of HapR. We also provide evidence that QstR is required for the proper expression of a small but essential subset of competence genes and propose a new regulatory model in which QstR links chitin-induced TfoX activity with Q

Natural transformation of Vibrio cholerae as a tool - Optimizing the procedure

<p>Abstract</p> <p>Background</p> <p><it>Vibrio cholerae </it>gains natural competence upon growth on chitin. This allows the organism to take up free DNA from the environment and to incorporate it into its genome by homologous recombination.</p> <p>Results</p> <p>Making use of this developmental program in order to use it as a tool to genetically manipulate <it>V. cholerae </it>and potentially also others <it>Vibrio </it>species was envisaged. Therefore, we re-investigated the experimental design for natural transformation of <it>V. cholerae </it>and tested different donor DNA fragments with respect to their source (genomic versus PCR-derived), quantity, and homologous flanking regions. Furthermore, we simplified the procedure in terms of the chitin source used as inducer of natural competence and the composition of the growth medium.</p> <p>Conclusions</p> <p>The current study allows us to recommend a standard protocol to genetically manipulate <it>V. cholerae </it>using commercially available sources of chitin and minimal medium, respectively, as well as PCR-derived donor DNA as transforming material.</p

[NiFe]-Hydrogenasen von Escherichia coli: Funktionen der am Metalleinbau beteiligten Proteine

[NiFe]-Hydrogenasen besitzen in ihrem aktiven Zentrum neben den namengebenden Metallen Nickel und Eisen die Nicht-Protein-Liganden CO und CN. Die Synthese und der Einbau dieses NiFe(CN)2CO Zentrums ist ein komplexer Prozess mit neuartigen bioanorganischen Fragestellungen, an dem eine Reihe von Hilfsproteinen beteiligt sind. Im Fall von Escherichia coli handelt es sich hierbei um die sieben Reifungsenzyme HypA, HypB, HypC, HypD, HypE und HypF. Zusätzlich bedarf es einer spezifischen Endopeptidase sowie ATP, GTP und Carbamoylphosphat als niedermolekulare Substrate. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit dem Ablauf der Hydrogenasereifung und der Charakterisierung der am Metalleinbau beteiligten, akzessorischen Proteinen. Im Einzelnen wurden folgende Resultate erzielt: 1. Die Funktion von HypA/HybF in vivo wurde als die eines Metallochaperons bestimmt, was einhergeht mit der Forderung nach Nickelbindung. Diese konnte experimentell nachgewiesen werden. Das Auffinden von stöchiometrischen Mengen an Zink sowie ein konserviertes Cysteinmotiv deuten auf einen “Zinkfinger“ hin, der von struktureller Bedeutung für das HybF-Protein ist. Ein Reifungsnetzwerk zwischen den drei Hydrogenasen von E. coli wurde erstellt, welches eine Regulation epistatisch zur Expression der Gene darstellt. 2. Die Charakterisierung des HypD Proteins durch Mössbauer-Spektroskopie ergab, dass es ein EPR-stilles [4Fe-4S]2+ Cluster enthält, welches ihm die gelbliche Farbe und das typische UV-VIS Spektrum verleiht. Die Bestimmung der Eisen- und Schwefelmenge im Wildtyp-Protein und in HypD-Varianten verstärkten diesen Befund. Austausche der konservierten Aminosäuren von HypD ergaben, dass ein C-terminales Cysteinmotiv zur Stabilität des Proteins beiträgt, weshalb die Cysteinreste als Liganden des FeS-Clusters vorgeschlagen wurden. 3. Da Carbamoylphosphat (CP) für die Synthese der Cyanidliganden notwendig ist, wurde ein CP-negativer E. coli Stamm näher untersucht. Dabei wurde ein Proteinkomplex aus zwei Hilfsproteinen (HypC und HypD) entdeckt, der ein Reifungsintermediat darstellt. 4. Die am HypE-Protein synthetisierte Cyanidgruppe wird auf den HypC-HypD Komplex übertragen. Dieser in vitro Befund führte zur Aufstellung eines neues Reifungsmodels als Zusammenfassung dieser Arbeit, wobei ein Gerüstkomplex zur Ligandensynthese postuliert wird

Serogroup Conversion of Vibrio cholerae in Aquatic Reservoirs

The environmental reservoirs for Vibrio cholerae are natural aquatic habitats, where it colonizes the chitinous exoskeletons of copepod molts. Growth of V. cholerae on a chitin surface induces competence for natural transformation, a mechanism for intra-species gene exchange. The antigenically diverse O-serogroup determinants of V. cholerae are encoded by a genetically variable biosynthetic cluster of genes that is flanked on either side by chromosomal regions that are conserved between different serogroups. To determine whether this genomic motif and chitin-induced natural transformation might enable the exchange of serogroup-specific gene clusters between different O serogroups of V. cholerae, a strain of V. cholerae O1 El Tor was co-cultured with a strain of V. cholerae O139 Bengal within a biofilm on the same chitin surface immersed in seawater, and O1-to-O139 transformants were obtained. Serogroup conversion of the O1 recipient by the O139 donor was demonstrated by comparative genomic hybridization, biochemical and serological characterization of the O-antigenic determinant, and resistance of O1-to-O139 transformants to bacteriolysis by a virulent O1-specific phage. Serogroup conversion was shown to have occurred as a single-step exchange of large fragments of DNA. Crossovers were localized to regions of homology common to other V. cholerae serogroups that flank serogroup-specific encoding sequences. This result and the successful serogroup conversion of an O1 strain by O37 genomic DNA indicate that chitin-induced natural transformation might be a common mechanism for serogroup conversion in aquatic habitats and for the emergence of V. cholerae variants that are better adapted for survival in environmental niches or more pathogenic for humans

DNA Transport across the Outer and Inner Membranes of Naturally Transformable Vibrio cholerae Is Spatially but Not Temporally Coupled

The physiological state of natural competence for transformation allows certain bacteria to take up free DNA from the environment and to recombine such newly acquired DNA into their chromosomes. However, even though conserved components that are required to undergo natural transformation have been identified in several naturally competent bacteria, our knowledge of the underlying mechanisms of the DNA uptake process remains very limited. To better understand these mechanisms, we investigated the competence-mediated DNA transport in the naturally transformable pathogen Vibrio cholerae. Previously, we used a cell biology-based approach to experimentally address an existing hypothesis, which suggested the competence protein ComEA plays a role in the DNA uptake process across the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. Here, we extended this knowledge by investigating the dynamics of DNA translocation across both membranes. More precisely, we indirectly visualized the transfer of the external DNA from outside the cell into the periplasm followed by the shuttling of the DNA into the cytoplasm. Based on these data, we conclude that for V. cholerae, the DNA translocation across the outer and inner membranes is spatially but not temporally coupled

Cues and regulatory pathways involved in natural competence and transformation in pathogenic and environmental Gram-negative bacteria

Bacterial genomics is flourishing, as whole-genome sequencing has become affordable, readily available, and rapid. As a result, it has become clear how frequently horizontal gene transfer (HGT) occurs in bacteria. The potential implications are highly significant because HGT contributes to several processes, including the spread of antibiotic-resistance cassettes, the distribution of toxin-encoding phages, and the transfer of pathogenicity islands. Three modes of HGT are recognized in bacteria: conjugation, transduction and natural transformation. In contrast to the first two mechanisms, natural competence for transformation does not rely on mobile genetic elements but is driven solely by a developmental program in the acceptor bacterium. Once the bacterium becomes competent, it is able to take up DNA from the environment and to incorporate the newly acquired DNA into its own chromosome. The initiation and duration of competence differ significantly among bacteria. In this review, we outline the latest data on representative naturally transformable Gram-negative bacteria and how their competence windows differ. We also summarize how environmental cues contribute to the initiation of competence in a subset of naturally transformable Gram-negative bacteria and how the complexity of the niche might dictate the fine-tuning of the competence window

Overexpression of the tcp Gene Cluster Using the T7 RNA Polymerase/Promoter System and Natural Transformation-Mediated Genetic Engineering of Vibrio cholerae

The human pathogen and aquatic bacterium Vibrio cholerae belongs to the group of naturally competent bacteria. This developmental program allows the bacterium to take up free DNA from its surrounding followed by a homologous recombination event, which allows integration of the transforming DNA into the chromosome. Taking advantage of this phenomenon we genetically engineered V. cholerae using natural transformation and FLP recombination. More precisely, we adapted the T7 RNA polymerase/promoter system in this organism allowing expression of genes in a T7 RNA polymerase-dependent manner. We naturally transformed V. cholerae by adding a T7-specific promoter sequence upstream the toxin-coregulated pilus (tcp) gene cluster. In a V. cholerae strain, which concomitantly produced the T7 RNA polymerase, this genetic manipulation resulted in the overexpression of downstream genes. The phenotypes of the strain were also in line with the successful production of TCP pili. This provides a proof-of-principle that the T7 RNA polymerase/promoter system is functional in V. cholerae and that genetic engineering of this organism by natural transformation is a straightforward and efficient approach

A transcriptional regulator linking quorum sensing and chitin induction to render Vibrio cholerae naturally transformable

The human pathogen Vibrio cholerae is an aquatic bacterium associated with zooplankton and their chitinous exoskeletons. On chitinous surfaces, V. cholerae initiates a developmental programme, known as natural competence, to mediate transformation, which is a mode of horizontal gene transfer. Competence facilitates the uptake of free DNA and recombination into the bacterial genome. Recent studies have indicated that chitin surfaces are required, but not sufficient to induce competence. Two additional regulatory pathways, i.e. catabolite repression and quorum sensing (QS), are components of the regulatory network that controls natural competence in V. cholerae. In this study, we investigated the link between chitin induction and QS. We show that the major regulators of these two pathways, TfoX and HapR, are both involved in the activation of a gene encoding a transcriptional regulator of the LuxR-type family, which we named QS and TfoX-dependent regulator (QstR). We demonstrate that HapR binds the promoter of qstR in a site-specific manner, indicating a role for HapR as an activator of qstR. In addition, epistasis experiments indicate that QstR compensates for the absence of HapR. We also provide evidence that QstR is required for the proper expression of a small but essential subset of competence genes and propose a new regulatory model in which QstR links chitin-induced TfoX activity with QS

Bacterial type VI secretion system facilitates niche domination

Over the last few decades humanity has experienced a series of tremendous technological advances, especially in the realm of basic science. A plethora of new approaches has allowed us to appreciate life in previously unimaginable detail, prompting the realization that life in the microscopic world is not so different from what we can observe with our naked eyes. Microorganisms, for instance, like any other organism, compete with one another for resources and space. Bacteria often use simple mechanisms to occupy their niche such as rapid growth and biofilm formation. Bacteria also use ingenious strategies to maximize their success. Indeed, to engage in warfare, microorganisms often produce diffusible toxic antimicrobial compounds as well as other more complicated molecular weapons. Secretion systems are a particular kind of molecular weapon as they release or inject molecules and substrates that interact not only with hosts and predators but also with bacterial competitors. Given that the type VI secretion system (T6SS) has been recognized as a frequently used molecular weapon, it is not at all surprising that it is found widely distributed throughout diverse bacterial species (around 25% of all gram-negatives) (1). The T6SS system was discovered in Vibrio cholerae due to its toxicity against the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum (2). That same year, it was also suggested to contribute to the pathogenesis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cystic fibrosis patients (3). Follow-up studies showed that the T6SS of these two species could also be used against other bacteria (4, 5). Indeed, while being recognized for its involvement in host–pathogen and predator–prey interactions, the principal role of the T6SS is currently thought to be as an antibacterial weapon. In PNAS, Speare et al. (6) explore an accessory T6SS of the symbiotic bacterium Vibrio fischeri and describe how this T6SS contributes to light-organ occupancy within the squid host